الرقيب الروماني

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الموسوعة الحرة

كان الرقيب قاضياً في روما القديمة مسؤولاً عن إجراء الإحصاء السكاني ، والإشراف على الأخلاق العامة ، ومراقبة جوانب معينة من الشؤون المالية للحكومة. [ 1 ]

أُنشئت الرقابة في ظل الجمهورية الرومانية ، وكانت سلطتها محدودة في نطاق اختصاصها، لكنها مطلقة ضمن حدود صلاحياتها: ففي المسائل التي تقع ضمن اختصاص الرقابة، لا يحق لأي قاضٍ معارضة قراراتها، ولا يحق إلا للرقيب الذي يخلفها إلغاء تلك القرارات. كما مُنح الرقيب فترات ولاية طويلة بشكل استثنائي؛ فعلى عكس المناصب المنتخبة الأخرى في الجمهورية، التي كانت فترات ولايتها (باستثناء بعض الكهنة المنتخبين مدى الحياة) لا تتجاوز 12 شهرًا، كانت فترات ولاية الرقيب تتراوح عمومًا بين 18 شهرًا و5 سنوات (بحسب العصر). ولذلك، كانت الرقابة منصبًا مرموقًا للغاية، يفوق جميع المناصب القضائية النظامية الأخرى في المكانة إن لم يكن في السلطة، وكان هذا المنصب مخصصًا، باستثناءات نادرة، للقناصل السابقين . وبالتالي، كان الوصول إلى منصب الرقابة يُعتبر ذروة إنجازات السياسي الروماني في مساره الوظيفي . ومع ذلك، لم يستمر هذا المنصب القضائي كوظيفة نظامية بعد انتقال السلطة من الجمهورية إلى الإمبراطورية .

إن تنظيم الرقيب للأخلاق العامة هو أصل المعنى الحديث لكلمتي الرقيب والرقابة . [ 2 ]

التاريخ المبكر للسلطة القضائية

بحسب كتاب ليفي " تاريخ روما" ، أُجريَ التعداد السكاني لأول مرة على يد سيرفيوس توليوس ، سادس ملوك روما ، حوالي 575-535 قبل الميلاد. بعد إلغاء الملكية وتأسيس الجمهورية عام 509 قبل الميلاد، تولى القناصل مسؤولية التعداد حتى عام 443 قبل الميلاد. [ 3 ] في عام 444 قبل الميلاد، لم يعد يُنتخب القناصل، بل عُيّنَ قادةٌ عسكريون يتمتعون بصلاحيات قنصلية. كانت هذه خطوة من العامة لمحاولة الوصول إلى مناصب أعلى: [ 4 ] إذ كان يُسمح فقط للأرستقراطيين بانتخاب القناصل، بينما كان بعض القادة العسكريين من العامة. ولمنع سيطرة العامة على التعداد، سحب الأرستقراطيون حق إجراء التعداد من القناصل والقادة العسكريين، وعيّنوا لهذه المهمة قاضيين، يُطلق عليهما اسم " المراقبين "، يُنتخبان حصريًا من بين الأرستقراطيين في روما. [ 3 ]

The magistracy continued to be controlled by patricians until 351 BC, when Gaius Marcius Rutilus was appointed the first plebeian censor.[5] Twelve years later, in 339 BC, one of the Publilian laws required that one censor had to be a plebeian.[6] Despite this, no plebeian censor performed the solemn purification of the people (the lustrum; Livy Periochae 13) until 280 BC. In 131 BC, for the first time, both censors were plebeians.[7]

The reason for having two censors was that the two consuls had previously taken the census together. If one of the censors died during his term of office, another was chosen to replace him, just as with consuls. This happened only once, in 393 BC. However, the Gauls captured Rome in that lustrum (five-year period), and the Romans thereafter regarded such replacement as "an offense against religion".[8] From then on, if one of the censors died, his colleague resigned, and two new censors were chosen to replace them.[9]

The office of censor was limited to eighteen months by a law proposed by the dictatorMamercus Aemilius Mamercinus.[10] During the censorship of Appius Claudius Caecus (312–308 BC) the prestige of the censorship massively increased. Caecus built the first-ever Roman road (the Via Appia) and the first Roman aqueduct (the Aqua Appia), both named after him.[11] He changed the organisation of the Roman tribes and was the first censor to draw the list of senators. He also advocated the founding of Roman coloniae throughout Latium and Campania to support the Roman war effort in the Second Samnite War. With these efforts and reforms, Appius Claudius Caecus was able to hold the censorship for a whole lustrum (five-year period), and the office of censor, subsequently entrusted with various important duties, eventually attained one of the highest political statuses in the Roman Republic, second only to that of the consuls.[12]

Election

The censors were elected in the Centuriate Assembly, which met under the presidency of a consul.[13]Barthold Niebuhr suggests that the censors were at first elected by the Curiate Assembly, and that the Assembly's selections were confirmed by the Centuriate, but William Smith believes that "there is no authority for this supposition, and the truth of it depends entirely upon the correctness of [Niebuhr's] views respecting the election of the consuls". Both censors had to be elected on the same day, and accordingly if the voting for the second was not finished in the same day, the election of the first was invalidated, and a new assembly had to be held.[14]

The assembly for the election of the censors was held under different auspices from those at the election of the consuls and praetors, so the censors were not regarded as their colleagues, although they likewise possessed the maxima auspicia.[15] The assembly was held by the new consuls shortly after they began their term of office;[16] and the censors, as soon as they were elected and the censorial power had been granted to them by a decree of the Centuriate Assembly (lex centuriata), were fully installed in their office.[17]

As a general principle, the only ones eligible for the office of censor were those who had previously been consuls, but there were a few exceptions. At first, there was no law to prevent a person being censor twice, but the only person who was elected to the office twice was Gaius Marcius Rutilus in 265 BC. In that year, he originated a law stating that no one could be elected censor twice. In consequence of this, he received the cognomen of Censorinus.[18]

Attributes

اختلفت الرقابة عن جميع المناصب الرومانية الأخرى في مدة ولايتها. كان يُختار الرقيب في الأصل لمدة خمس سنوات كاملة ( لوستروم )، ولكن بعد عشر سنوات فقط من تأسيسها (433 قبل الميلاد)، حُدِّدت مدة ولايته بثمانية عشر شهرًا بموجب قانون أصدره الديكتاتور مامركوس إيميليوس مامرسينوس . [ 10 ] كما تميز الرقيب برتبته ومكانته. فلم تكن له سلطة مطلقة ، وبالتالي لم يكن له حراس . [ 19 ] مُنحت رتبته من قبل الجمعية المئوية ، وليس من قبل الكوريا ، ومن هذا المنطلق كان أدنى سلطة من القناصل والبريتورات. [ 20 ]

مع ذلك، كانت الرقابة تُعتبر أعلى منصب في الدولة، باستثناء الديكتاتورية ؛ فقد كانت "سلطة مقدسة" ( sanctus magistratus ) تستحق أعمق درجات التبجيل. [ 21 ] ويعود هذا المقام الرفيع والمكانة الرفيعة التي حظيت بها الرقابة إلى المهام الهامة المتعددة التي أُسندت إليها تدريجيًا، ولا سيما إلى امتلاكها " نظام الأخلاق" (rigmin morum )، أي السيطرة العامة على سلوك المواطنين وأخلاقهم. وفي ممارسة هذه السلطة، كانت الرقابة تخضع فقط لرؤيتها الخاصة للواجب، ولم تكن مسؤولة أمام أي سلطة أخرى في الدولة. [ 22 ]

كان للرقباء كرسي رسمي يُسمى " كرسي كورول " ( sella curulis )، [ 23 ] ولكن ثمة شكوك حول زيهم الرسمي. يصف مقطع معروف من كتابات بوليبيوس [ 24 ] استخدام الصور في الجنازات؛ نستنتج أن القنصل أو البريتور كان يرتدي التوغا بريتيكستا ذات الحواف الأرجوانية ، ومن انتصر كان يرتدي التوغا بيكتا المطرزة ، أما الرقيب فكان يرتدي توغا أرجوانية خاصة به، لكن كتّابًا آخرين يتحدثون عن زيهم الرسمي على أنه مماثل لزي كبار القضاة الآخرين. [ 25 ] كانت جنازة الرقيب تُقام دائمًا بموكب مهيب وفخم، ولذلك كان يُقام "جنازة رقباء" ( funus censorium ) حتى للأباطرة. [ 26 ]

إلغاء

The censorship continued in existence for 421 years, from 443 BC to 22 BC, but during this period, many lustra passed by without any censor being chosen at all. According to one statement, the office was abolished by Lucius Cornelius Sulla.[27] Although the authority on which this statement rests is not of much weight, the fact itself is probable, since there was no census during the two lustra which elapsed from Sulla's dictatorship to Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey)'s first consulship (82–70 BC), and any strict "imposition of morals" would have been found inconvenient to the aristocracy that supported Sulla.[28]

If the censorship had been done away with by Sulla, it was at any rate restored in the consulship of Pompey and Marcus Licinius Crassus. Its power was limited by one of the laws of the tribune Publius Clodius Pulcher (58 BC), which prescribed certain regular forms of proceeding before the censors in expelling a person from the Roman Senate, and required that the censors be in agreement to exact this punishment.[29] This law, however, was repealed in the third consulship of Pompey in 52 BC, on the urging of his colleague Q. Caecilius Metellus Scipio,[30] but the office of the censorship never recovered its former power and influence.[31]

During the civil wars which followed soon afterwards, no censors were elected; it was only after a long interval that they were again appointed, namely in 23 BC, when Augustus caused Lucius Munatius Plancus and Aemilius Lepidus Paullus to fill the office.[32] This was the last time that such magistrates were appointed; the emperors in future discharged the duties of their office under the name of Praefectura Morum ("prefect of the morals").[31]

اتخذ بعض الأباطرة لقب الرقيب عند إجراء إحصاء للشعب الروماني؛ كما فعل كلوديوس الذي عيّن ابنه الأكبر لوسيوس فيتليوس زميلًا له، [ 33 ] وكذلك فعل فسباسيان الذي كان ابنه تيتوس زميلًا له أيضًا . [ 34 ] اتخذ دوميتيان لقب "الرقيب الدائم" ( censor perpetuus )، [ 35 ] لكن لم يحذُ حذوه الأباطرة اللاحقون. في عهد ديسيوس ، رُشِّح فاليريان الأكبر لمنصب الرقيب، لكنه رفضه. [ 36 ] [ 37 ]

الواجبات

يمكن تقسيم واجبات الرقيب إلى ثلاث فئات، وكلها كانت مرتبطة ارتباطًا وثيقًا ببعضها البعض:

  1. التعداد السكاني ، سجل جميع المواطنين وممتلكاتهم، تأكيد أو تعيين أعضاء مجلس الشيوخ ( lectio senatus ، حرفيًا " قراءة مجلس الشيوخ " )، والاعتراف بمن تأهلوا لرتبة الفروسية ( recognitio equitum )؛
  2. نظام الأخلاق العامة؛ و
  3. إدارة الشؤون المالية للدولة، والإشراف على المباني العامة، وإقامة جميع الأشغال العامة الجديدة. [ 38 ]

The original business of the censorship was at first of a much more limited kind, and was restricted almost entirely to taking the census,[39] but the possession of this power gradually brought with it fresh power and new duties, as is shown below. A general view of these duties is briefly expressed in the following passage of Cicero:[40] "Censores populi aevitates, soboles, familias pecuniasque censento: urbis templa, vias, aquas, aerarium, vectigalia tuento: populique partes in tribus distribunto: exin pecunias, aevitates, ordines patiunto: equitum, peditumque prolem describunto: caelibes esse prohibento: mores populi regunto: probrum in senatu ne relinquunto." This can be translated as: "The Censors are to determine the generations, origins, families, and properties of the people; they are to (watch over/protect) the city's temples, roads, waters, treasury, and taxes; they are to divide the people into three parts; next, they are to (allow/approve) the properties, generations, and ranks [of the people]; they are to describe the offspring of knights and footsoldiers; they are to forbid being unmarried; they are to guide the behavior of the people; they are not to overlook abuse in the Senate."

Census

Scene of census-taking from the so-called Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus, late 2nd century BC

The Census, the first and principal duty of the censors, was always held in the Campus Martius, and from the year 435 BC onwards, in a special building called Villa publica, which was erected for that purpose by the second pair of censors, Gaius Furius Pacilus Fusus and Marcus Geganius Macerinus.[41] An account of the formalities with which the census was opened is given in a fragment of the Tabulae Censoriae, preserved by Varro.[42] After the auspices had been taken, the citizens were summoned by a public crier to appear before the censors. Each tribe was called up separately,[43] and the names in each tribe were probably taken according to the lists previously made out by the tribunes of the tribes. Every pater familias had to appear in person before the censors, who were seated in their curule chairs, and those names were taken first which were considered to be of good omen, such as Valerius, Salvius, Statorius, etc.[44]

The Census was conducted according to the judgement of the censor (ad arbitrium censoris), but the censors laid down certain rules,[45] sometimes called leges censui censendo,[46] in which mention was made of the different kinds of property subject to the census, and in what way their value was to be estimated. According to these laws, each citizen had to give an account of himself, of his family, and of his property upon oath, "declared from the heart".[47] First he had to give his full name (praenomen, nomen, and cognomen) and that of his father, or if he were a libertus ("freedman") that of his patron, and he was likewise obliged to state his age. He was then asked, "You, declaring from your heart, do you have a wife?" and if married he had to give the name of his wife, and likewise the number, names, and ages of his children, if any.[48] Single women and orphans were represented by their guardians; their names were entered in separate lists, and they were not included in the sum total of heads.[49]

After a citizen had stated his name, age, family, etc., he then had to give an account of all his property, so far as it was subject to the census. Only such things were liable to the census (censui censendo) as were property according to the Quiritary law. At first, each citizen appears to have merely given the value of his whole property in general without entering into details;[50] but it soon became the practice to give a minute specification of each article, as well as the general value of the whole.[51] Land formed the most important article of the census, but public land, the possession of which only belonged to a citizen, was excluded as not being Quiritarian property. Judging from the practice of the imperial period, it was the custom to give a most minute specification of all such land as a citizen held according to the Quiritarian law. He had to state the name and location of the land, and to specify what portion of it was arable, what meadow, what vineyard, and what olive-ground: and of the land thus described, he had to give his assessment of its value.[52]

Slaves and cattle formed the next most important item. The censors also possessed the right of calling for a return of such objects as had not usually been given in, such as clothing, jewels, and carriages.[53] It has been doubted by some modern writers whether the censors possessed the power of setting a higher valuation on the property than the citizens themselves gave, but given the discretionary nature of the censors' powers, and the necessity almost that existed, in order to prevent fraud, that the right of making a surcharge should be vested in somebody's hands, it is likely that the censors had this power. It is moreover expressly stated that on one occasion they made an extravagant surcharge on articles of luxury;[53] and even if they did not enter in their books the property of a person at a higher value than he returned it, they accomplished the same end by compelling him to pay a tax upon the property at a higher rate than others. The tax was usually one per thousand upon the property entered in the books of the censors, but on one occasion the censors compelled a person to pay eight per thousand as a punishment.[54]

A person who voluntarily absented himself from the census was considered incensus and subject to the severest punishment. Servius Tullius is said to have threatened such individuals with imprisonment and death,[55] and in the Republican period he might be sold by the state as a slave.[56] In the later period of the Republic, a person who was absent from the census might be represented by another, and be thus registered by the censors.[57] Whether the soldiers who were absent on service had to appoint a representative is uncertain. In ancient times, the sudden outbreaks of war prevented the census from being taken,[58] because a large number of the citizens would necessarily be absent. It is supposed from a passage in Livy[59] that in later times the censors sent commissioners into the provinces with full powers to take the census of the Roman soldiers there, but this seems to have been a special case. It is, on the contrary, probable from the way in which Cicero pleads the absence of Archias from Rome with the army under Lucullus, as a sufficient reason for his not having been enrolled in the census,[60] that service in the army was a valid excuse for absence.

The Temple of Saturn, which housed the aerarium Saturni and the aerarium sanctum

After the censors had received the names of all the citizens with the amount of their property, they then had to make out the lists of the tribes, and also of the classes and centuries; for by the legislation of Servius Tullius the position of each citizen in the state was determined by the amount of his property (Comitia Centuriata). These lists formed a most important part of the Tabulae Censoriae, under which name were included all the documents connected in any way with the discharge of the censors' duties.[61] These lists, insofar as they were connected with the finances of the state, were deposited in the aerarium, located in the Temple of Saturn;[62] but the regular depository for all the archives of the censors was in earlier times the Atrium Libertatis, near the Villa publica,[63] and in later times the temple of the Nymphs.[64]

In addition to the division of the citizens into tribes, centuries, and classes, the censors had the power to confirm or revise the list of senators, striking out the names of such as they considered unworthy, and making additions to the body from those who were qualified. In the same manner, they held a review of the equites who received a horse from public funds (equites equo publico), and added and removed names as they judged proper. They also confirmed the princeps senatus, or appointed a new one. The princeps himself had to be a former censor. After the lists had been completed, the number of citizens was counted up, and the sum total announced. Accordingly, we find that in the account of a census, the number of citizens is likewise usually given. They are in such cases spoken of as capita ("heads"), sometimes with the addition of the word civium ("of the citizens"), and sometimes not. Hence, to be registered in the census was the same thing as "having a head" (caput habere).

Census beyond Rome

A census was sometimes taken in the provinces, even under the Republic.[65] The emperor sent into the provinces special officers called censitores to take the census;[66] but the duty was sometimes discharged by the Imperial legati.[67] The censitores were assisted by subordinate officers, called censuales, who made out the lists, etc.[68] In Rome, the census was still taken under the Empire, but the old ceremonies connected with it were no longer performed, and the ceremony of the lustratio was not performed after the time of Vespasian. The jurists Paulus and Ulpian each wrote works on the census in the imperial period; and several extracts from these works are given in a chapter in the Digest (50 15).

Other uses of census

The word census, besides the conventional meaning of "valuation" of a person's estate, has other meaning in Rome; it could refer to:

  • the amount of a person's property (hence we read of census senatorius, the estate of a senator; census equestris, the estate of an eques).
  • the lists of the censors.
  • the tax which depended upon the valuation in the census. The Lexicons will supply examples of these meanings.

Regimen morum

Keeping the public morals (regimen morum, or in the Empirecura morum or praefectura morum) was the second most important branch of the censors' duties, and the one which caused their office to be one of the most revered and the most dreaded; hence they were also known as castigatores ("chastisers"). It naturally grew out of the right which they possessed of excluding persons from the lists of citizens; for, as has been well remarked, "they would, in the first place, be the sole judges of many questions of fact, such as whether a citizen had the qualifications required by law or custom for the rank which he claimed, or whether he had ever incurred any judicial sentence, which rendered him infamous: but from thence the transition was easy, according to Roman notions, to the decisions of questions of right; such as whether a citizen was really worthy of retaining his rank, whether he had not committed some act as justly degrading as those which incurred the sentence of the law."

بهذه الطريقة، تولى الرقيب تدريجيًا إشرافًا كاملًا، اسميًا على الأقل، على الحياة العامة والخاصة لكل مواطن. شُكِّلوا كحُماة للأخلاق العامة؛ لم يقتصر دورهم على منع الجريمة أو أفعال معينة من أعمال الفساد الأخلاقي، بل شمل أيضًا الحفاظ على الطابع الروماني التقليدي، والأخلاق، والعادات ( mos majorum ) - كما شمل نظام الأخلاق (rigim morum ) حماية هذه التقاليد، [ 69 ] والتي كانت تُسمى في عهد الإمبراطورية cura ("الإشراف") أو praefectura ("القيادة"). كانت العقوبة التي يفرضها الرقيب في ممارسة هذا الفرع من واجباته تُسمى nota ("العلامة، الحرف") أو notatio ، أو animadversio censoria ("التوبيخ الرقابي"). في فرضها، لم يكن يسترشدون إلا بقناعاتهم الضميرية بالواجب؛ وكان عليهم أن يُقسموا على أنهم لن يتصرفوا بتحيز أو محاباة. وبالإضافة إلى ذلك، كانوا ملزمين في كل حالة بذكر سبب العقوبة التي تم إنزالها بالمواطن المذنب في قوائمهم، مقابل اسمه، subscriptio censoria . [ 70 ]

منح هذا القسم من مكتب الرقابة سلطةً فريدةً من نوعها، تُشبه في كثير من جوانبها ممارسة الرأي العام في العصر الحديث؛ إذ توجد أفعال لا حصر لها، وإن أقرّ الجميع بأنها ضارة وغير أخلاقية، إلا أنها لا تندرج ضمن نطاق القوانين الوضعية للدولة؛ وكما يُقال غالبًا: "لا يُساوي اللاأخلاقيةُ عدمَ الشرعية". حتى في حالات الجرائم الحقيقية، غالبًا ما تُعاقب القوانين الوضعية على الجريمة المحددة فقط، بينما في الرأي العام، يظلّ المُذنب، حتى بعد خضوعه للعقاب، غير مؤهل لبعض الأوسمة والتكريمات التي تُمنح فقط للأشخاص ذوي السمعة الحسنة.

لذا، كان بإمكان الرقيب الروماني وسم الرجل بـ"علامة الرقابة" ( nota censoria ) إذا أُدين بجريمة في محكمة عادية، ونال عقابه عليها. وكانت نتيجة هذه العلامة هي العار فقط ، لا الإهانة . [ 71 ] لم تكن الإهانة وحكم الرقابة بمثابة حكم نهائي ، [ 72 ] لأن آثارها لم تكن دائمة، بل كان من الممكن إزالتها من قبل الرقيب اللاحق، أو بموجب قانون . علاوة على ذلك، لم تكن علامة الرقابة سارية المفعول إلا بموافقة كلا الرقيبين. وهكذا، لم يكن العار سوى تخفيض مؤقت للمكانة، لا يبدو أنه كان يُجرّد القاضي من منصبه، [ 73 ] وبالتأكيد لم يكن يُقصي الأشخاص الخاضعين له من الحصول على منصب قضائي، أو من التعيين كقضاة من قبل البريتور ، أو من الخدمة في الجيش الروماني . وهكذا أصبح Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus ديكتاتورًا ، على الرغم من انتقادات الرقابة ( animadversio censeria ) . [ 74 ]

قد يُوسم الشخص بعلامة رقابة في حالاتٍ عديدة، يصعب تحديدها بدقة، إذ يعتمد الأمر في كثير من الأحيان على تقدير الرقيب ورأيه في القضية؛ بل قد تتغاضى بعض الرقيبات عن مخالفةٍ عوقبت بشدة من قبل خلفائها. [ 75 ] أما المخالفات التي سُجِّلت أنها عوقبت من قبل الرقيب فهي ذات طبيعة ثلاثية.

  1. مثل ما حدث في الحياة الخاصة للأفراد:
    1. العيش في عزوبية في وقت كان ينبغي فيه على المرء أن يتزوج لتزويد الدولة بالمواطنين. [ 76 ] كان الرقيب يفرض على المواطنين واجب الزواج بشكل متكرر، وكان رفض الوفاء به يُعاقب بغرامة ( aes uxorium ).
    2. [ 77 ] فسخ الزواج أو الخطوبة بطريقة غير سليمة، أو لأسباب غير كافية.
    3. سوء السلوك تجاه الزوجة أو الأطفال، وكذلك القسوة أو التدليل المفرط تجاه الأطفال، وعصيان هؤلاء الأطفال لوالديهم. [ 78 ]
    4. Inordinate and luxurious mode of living, or an extravagant expenditure of money. A great many instances of this kind are recorded.[79] At a later time the leges sumptuariae were made to check the growing love of luxuries.
    5. Neglect and carelessness in cultivating one's fields.[80]
    6. Cruelty towards slaves or clients.[81]
    7. The carrying on of a disreputable trade or occupation,[82] such as acting in theatres.[83]
    8. Legacy-hunting, defrauding orphans, etc.
  2. Offences committed in public life, either in the capacity of a public officer or against magistrates,
    1. If a magistrate acted in a manner not befitting his dignity as an officer, if he was accessible to bribes, or forged auspices.[84]
    2. Improper conduct towards a magistrate, or the attempt to limit his power or to abrogate a law which the censors thought necessary.[85]
    3. Perjury.[86]
    4. Neglect, disobedience, and cowardice of soldiers in the army.[87]
    5. The keeping of the equus publicus (a horse kept by patrician equestrian militia at public expense) in bad condition.
  3. A variety of actions or pursuits which were thought to be injurious to public morality, might be forbidden by an edict,[88] and those who acted contrary to such edicts were branded with the nota and degraded. For an enumeration of the offences that might be punished by the censors with ignominia, see Niebuhr.[89]

A person who had been branded with a nota censoria, might, if he considered himself wronged, endeavour to prove his innocence to the censors,[90] and if he did not succeed, he might try to gain the protection of one of the censors, that he might intercede on his behalf.

Punishments

The punishments inflicted by the censors generally differed according to the station which a man occupied, though sometimes a person of the highest rank might suffer all the punishments at once, by being degraded to the lowest class of citizens. The punishments are generally divided into four classes:

  1. Motio ("removal") or ejectio e senatu ("ejection from the Senate"), or the exclusion of a man from the ranks of senators. This punishment might either be a simple exclusion from the list of senators, or the person might at the same time be excluded from the tribes and degraded to the rank of an aerarian.[91] The latter course seems to have been seldom adopted; the ordinary mode of inflicting the punishment was simply this: the censors in their new lists omitted the names of such senators as they wished to exclude, and in reading these new lists in public, quietly omitted the names of those who were no longer to be senators. Hence the expression praeteriti senatores ("senators passed over") is equivalent to e senatu ejecti (those removed from the Senate).[92] In some cases, however, the censors did not acquiesce to this simple mode of proceeding, but addressed the senator whom they had noted, and publicly reprimanded him for his conduct.[93] As in ordinary cases an ex-senator was not disqualified by his ignominia for holding any of the magistracies which opened the way to the Senate, he might at the next census again become a senator.[94]
  2. The ademptio equi, or taking away of the publicly funded horse from an equestrian. This punishment might likewise be simple, or combined with the exclusion from the tribes and the degradation to the rank of an aerarian.[95]
  3. The motio e tribu, or the exclusion of a person from his tribe. This punishment and the degradation to the rank of an aerarian were originally the same, but when in the course of time a distinction was made between the rural or rustic tribes and the urban tribes, the motio e tribu transferred a person from the rustic tribes to the less respectable city tribes, and if the further degradation to the rank of an aerarian was combined with the motio e tribu, it was always expressly stated.[96]
  4. The fourth punishment was called referre in aerarios[97] or facere aliquem aerarium,[98] and might be inflicted on any person who was thought by the censors to deserve it. This degradation, properly speaking, included all the other punishments, for an equestrian could not be made an aerarius unless he was previously deprived of his horse, nor could a member of a rustic tribe be made an aerarius unless he was previously excluded from it.[99]

It was this authority of the Roman censors which eventually developed into the modern meaning of "censor" and "censorship"—i.e., officials who review published material and forbid the publication of material judged to be contrary to "public morality" as the term is interpreted in a given political and social environment.

Administration of the finances of the state

The administration of the state's finances was another part of the censors' office. In the first place the tributum, or property-tax, had to be paid by each citizen according to the amount of his property registered in the census, and, accordingly, the regulation of this tax naturally fell under the jurisdiction of the censors.[100] They also had the superintendence of all the other revenues of the state, the vectigalia, such as the tithes paid for the public lands, the salt works, the mines, the customs, etc.

The censors typically auctioned off to the highest bidder for the space of a lustrum the collection of the tithes and taxes (tax farming). This auctioning was called venditio or locatio, and seems to have taken place in the month of March,[101] in a public place in Rome[102] The terms on which they were let, together with the rights and duties of the purchasers, were all specified in the leges censoriae, which the censors published in every case before the bidding commenced.[103] For further particulars see Publicani.

The censors also possessed the right, though probably not without the assent of the Senate, of imposing new vectigalia,[104] and even of selling the land belonging to the state.[105] It would thus appear that it was the duty of the censors to bring forward a budget for a five-year period, and to take care that the income of the state was sufficient for its expenditure during that time. In part, their duties resembled those of a modern minister of finance. The censors, however, did not receive the revenues of the state. All the public money was paid into the aerarium, which was entirely under the jurisdiction of the Senate; and all disbursements were made by order of this body, which employed the quaestors as its officers.

Overseeing public works

In one important department, the public works, the censors were entrusted with the expenditure of the public money (though the actual payments were no doubt made by the quaestors).

The censors had the general superintendence of all the public buildings and works (opera publica), and to meet the expenses connected with this part of their duties, the Senate voted them a certain sum of money or certain revenues, to which they were restricted, but which they might at the same time employ according to their discretion.[106] They had to see that the temples and all other public buildings were in a good state of repair,[107] that no public places were encroached upon by the occupation of private persons,[108] and that the aqueducts, roads, drains, etc. were properly attended to.

The repairs of the public works and the keeping of them in proper condition were let out by the censors by public auction to the lowest bidder, just as the vectigalia were let out to the highest bidder. These expenses were called ultrotributa, and hence we frequently find vectigalia and ultrotributa contrasted with one another.[109] The persons who undertook the contract were called conductores, mancipes, redemptores, susceptores, etc., and the duties they had to discharge were specified in the Leges Censoriae. The censors had also to superintend the expenses connected with the worship of the gods, even for instance the feeding of the sacred geese in the Capitol; these various tasks were also let out on contract.[110] It was ordinary for censors to expend large amounts of money (“by far the largest and most extensive” of the state)[111] in their public works.

Appius Claudius Caecus, one of the most influential censors

Besides keeping existing public buildings and facilities in a proper state of repair, the censors were also in charge of constructing new ones, either for ornament or utility, both in Rome and in other parts of Italy, such as temples, basilicae, theatres, porticoes, fora, aqueducts, town walls, harbours, bridges, cloacae, roads, etc. These works were either performed by them jointly, or they divided between them the money, which had been granted to them by the Senate.[112] They were let out to contractors, like the other works mentioned above, and when they were completed, the censors had to see that the work was performed in accordance with the contract: this was called opus probare or in acceptum referre.[113]

The first ever Roman road, the Via Appia, and the first Roman aqueduct, the Aqua Appia, were all constructed under the censorship of Appius Claudius Caecus, one of the most influential censors.

The aediles had likewise a superintendence over the public buildings, and it is not easy to define with accuracy the respective duties of the censors and aediles, but it may be remarked in general that the superintendence of the aediles had more of a police character, while that of the censors were more financial in subject matter.

Lustrum

بعد أن يؤدي الرقيب مهامه المختلفة ويجري الإحصاء السكاني الذي يُجرى كل خمس سنوات، كان يُقام طقس التطهير ، وهو طقس مهيب لتطهير الشعب. وعندما يدخل الرقيب إلى مكتبه، يُجري قرعة لتحديد من سيقوم بهذا التطهير؛ [ 114 ] ولكن كان من واجب كلا الرقيبين بالطبع حضور المراسم.

بعد فترة طويلة من توقف إجراء الإحصاء الروماني، بقيت الكلمة اللاتينية lustrum ، وتم اعتمادها في بعض اللغات الحديثة، بالمعنى المشتق لفترة خمس سنوات، أي نصف عقد.

إحصاءات التعداد السكاني

التعداد السكانيعدد المواطنين الرومانالأزمات الاقتصاديةالحروبالأوبئة
508 قبل الميلاد130,000
505-504 قبل الميلاد
503 قبل الميلاد120,000
499 أو 496 قبل الميلاد
498 قبل الميلاد150,700
493 قبل الميلاد110,000
492-491 قبل الميلاد
486 قبل الميلاد
474 قبل الميلاد103,000474 قبل الميلاد474 قبل الميلاد
465 قبل الميلاد104,714
459 قبل الميلاد117,319
456 قبل الميلاد
454 قبل الميلاد454 قبل الميلاد
440–439 قبل الميلاد
433 قبل الميلاد433 قبل الميلاد
428 قبل الميلاد428 قبل الميلاد
412 قبل الميلاد412 قبل الميلاد
400 قبل الميلاد
396 قبل الميلاد
392 قبل الميلاد152,573392 قبل الميلاد392 قبل الميلاد
390 قبل الميلاد390 قبل الميلاد
387 قبل الميلاد
383 قبل الميلاد383 قبل الميلاد
343-341 قبل الميلاد
340 قبل الميلاد165,000340-338 قبل الميلاد
326-304 قبل الميلاد
323 قبل الميلاد150,000
299 قبل الميلاد
298-290 قبل الميلاد
294 قبل الميلاد262,321
293/292 قبل الميلاد
289 قبل الميلاد272,200
284 قبل الميلاد
280 قبل الميلاد287,222281-275 قبل الميلاد
276 قبل الميلاد271,224276 قبل الميلاد؟
265 قبل الميلاد292,234
264–241 قبل الميلاد
252 قبل الميلاد297,797
250 قبل الميلاد250 قبل الميلاد
247 قبل الميلاد241,712
241 قبل الميلاد260,000
234 قبل الميلاد270,713
216 قبل الميلاد216 قبل الميلاد
211-210 قبل الميلاد211 قبل الميلاد
209 قبل الميلاد137,108
204 قبل الميلاد214,000204 قبل الميلاد
203 قبل الميلاد
201 قبل الميلاد
200 قبل الميلاد200-196 قبل الميلاد
194 قبل الميلاد143,704
192-188 قبل الميلاد
189 قبل الميلاد258,318
187 قبل الميلاد
182-180 قبل الميلاد
179 قبل الميلاد258,318
176-175 قبل الميلاد
174 قبل الميلاد269,015
171-168 قبل الميلاد
169 قبل الميلاد312,805
165 قبل الميلاد
164 قبل الميلاد337,022
159 قبل الميلاد328,316
154 قبل الميلاد324,000
153 قبل الميلاد
147 قبل الميلاد322,000
142 قبل الميلاد322,442142 قبل الميلاد
138 قبل الميلاد
136 قبل الميلاد317,933
131 قبل الميلاد318,823
125 قبل الميلاد394,736
123 قبل الميلاد
115 قبل الميلاد394,336
104 قبل الميلاد
87 قبل الميلاد
86 قبل الميلاد463,000
80-72 قبل الميلاد
70 قبل الميلاد910,000
67 قبل الميلاد
65 قبل الميلاد
53 قبل الميلاد
49-45 قبل الميلاد
43 قبل الميلاد
28 قبل الميلاد4,063,000
23-2223-22
8 قبل الميلاد4,233,000
5-6
10
14 ميلادي4,937,000

انظر أيضاً

ملحوظات

مراجع

الاقتباسات

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  2. ↑ "الرقابة | أصل كلمة الرقابة ومعناها من موقع etymonline " . www.etymonline.com
  3. ١ ٢ "تيتوس ليفيوس (ليفي)، تاريخ روما، الكتاب الرابع، الفصل الثامن" . www.perseus.tufts.edu . تاريخ الوصول: ٢٠٢٣-٠٥-٠٢ .
  4. ↑ "لاكوس كورتيوس • الرقيب الروماني (قاموس سميث، 1875)" . penelope.uchicago.edu . تم الاطلاع عليه بتاريخ 20 نوفمبر 2024 .
  5. ↑ ليفي السابع.22.
  6. ↑ ليفي 8.12.
  7. ↑ سويثينبانك، هانا ج. (أكتوبر 2012). "الرقيب". موسوعة التاريخ القديم . doi : 10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah20027 . ISBN 9781444338386.
  8. ↑ ليفي المجلد 31.
  9. ^ ليفي السادس.27، التاسع.34، الرابع والعشرون.43، السابع والعشرون.6.
  10. 1 2 ليفي iv.24، ix.33.
  11. ↑"The Romans: From Village to Empire: A History of Rome from Earliest Times to the End of the Western Empire" by M. Boatwright, et al. 2nd edition. 2011.
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  13. ↑Aulus Gellius xiii.15; Livy xl.45.
  14. ↑Livy ix.34.
  15. ↑Gellii xiii.15.
  16. ↑Livy xxiv.10, xxxix.41.
  17. ↑Cicero, de Lege Agraria ii.11; Livy xl.45.
  18. ↑Plutarch, Life of Coriolanus 1; Valerius Maximus iv.1 §3.
  19. ↑Zonar. vii.19.
  20. ↑Cicero, de Lege Agraria ii.11.
  21. ↑Plutarch Life of Cato the Elder 16, Life of Flaminius 18, Life of Camillus 2, 14, Life of Aemilius 38; Cicero ad Familiares iii.10.
  22. ↑Dionys. in Mai, Nova Coll. vol. ii p516; Livy iv.24, xxix.37; Valerius Maximus vii.2 §6.
  23. ↑Livy xl.45.
  24. ↑vi.53.
  25. ↑Zonar. vii.19; Athen. xiv. p660c.
  26. ↑TacitusAnnales iv.15, xiii.2.
  27. ↑Schol. Gronov. ad Cic. Div. in Caecil. 3, p384, ed. Johann Caspar Orelli.
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  30. ↑Cassius Dio xl.57.
  31. 12Cartwright, Mark. "Censor". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2023-07-13.
  32. ↑SuetoniusLife of Augustus 37, Life of Claudius 16; Cassius Dio liv.2.
  33. ↑Suetonius Life of Claudius 16; Tacitus Annales xii.4, Historia i.9.
  34. ↑Suet. Vesp. 8, Tit. 6.
  35. ↑Cassius Dio liii.18.
  36. ↑Symmach. Ep. iv.29, v.9)
  37. ↑Weigel, Richard D. (3 August 1998). "An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors". Archived from the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 13 July 2023.
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  39. ↑Livy iv.8.
  40. ↑De legibus iii.3.
  41. ↑Livy iv.22; Varrode Re Rustica iii.2.
  42. ↑De lingua Latina vi.86, 87, ed. Müller.
  43. ↑Dionys. v.75.
  44. ↑Festus, s.v. Lacus Lucrinus; Schol. Bob. ad Cic. pro Scaur. p374, ed. Orelli.
  45. ↑Livy iv.8, xxix.15.
  46. ↑Liv. xliii.14.
  47. ↑Dionysius iv.15; Livy xliii.15.
  48. ↑Gell. iv.20; Cicero de Oratore ii.64; Tab. Heracl. 142 (68); Digesta Iustiniani 50 tit.15 s3.
  49. ↑cf. Livy iii.3, Periochae 59.
  50. ↑Dionysius iv.15; Cicero de Legibus iii.3; Festus, s.v. Censores.
  51. ↑cf. Cicero pro Flacc. 32; Gell. vii.11; Plutarch Life of Cato the Elder 18.
  52. ↑Digesta Iustiniani 50 tit.15 s4.
  53. 12Livy xxxix.44; Plutarch Life of Cato the Elder 18.
  54. ↑Livy iv.24.
  55. ↑Livy i.44.
  56. ↑Cicero pro Caecina Oratio 34.
  57. ↑Varro De lingua Latina vi.86.
  58. ↑Livy vi.31.
  59. ↑xxix.37.
  60. ↑pro Licinio Archia 5.
  61. ↑Cicero de Legibus iii.3; Liv. xxiv.18; Plut. Cat. Maj. 16; Cic. de Leg. Agr. i.2.
  62. ↑Liv. xxix.37.
  63. ↑Liv. xliii.16, xlv.15.
  64. ↑Cic. pro Mil. 27.
  65. ↑Cicero In Verrem ii.53, 56.
  66. ↑Dig. 50 tit.15 s4 § 1; Cassiod. Var. ix.11; Orelli, Inscr. No. 3652.
  67. ↑Tacitus Ann. i.31, ii.6.
  68. ↑Capitol. Gordian. 12; Symmach. Ep. x.43; Cod. Theod. 8 tit.2.
  69. ↑Cicero de Legibus iii.3; Livy iv.8, xxiv.18, xl.46, xli.27, xlii.3; Suetonius Life of Augustus 27.
  70. ↑Livy xxxix.42; Cicero pro Cluentio Oratio 42‑48; Gell. iv.20.
  71. ↑Cicero De re publica iv.6.
  72. ↑Cicero pro Cluentio Oratio 42.
  73. ↑(Livy xxiv.18.
  74. ↑Livy iv.31.
  75. ↑Cicero De senectute 12.
  76. ↑Valerius Maximus ii.9 §1.
  77. ↑Valerius Maximus ii.9 §2.
  78. ↑Plutarch Life of Cato the Elder 17; cf. Cicero de Re Publica iv.6; Dionys. xx.3.
  79. ↑Livy Periochae 14, xxxix.4; Plutarch Life of Cato the Elder 18; Gellius, iv.8; Valerius Maximus ii.9 §4.
  80. ↑Auli Gellii iv.12; Pliny Natural History xviii.3.
  81. ↑Dionysius xx.3.
  82. ↑Dionysius, l.c.
  83. ↑Livy vii.2.
  84. ↑Cicero de Senectute 12; Livy xxxix. 42; Valerius Maximus ii. 9. § 3; Plutarch Cato Major 17; Cicero De Divinatione i. 16.
  85. ↑Livy iv. 24; Cicero de Oratore ii. 64; Valerius Maximus ii. 9. § 5; Gellius, iv. 20.
  86. ↑Cicero de Oratore i. 13; Livy xxiv. 18; Gellius vii. 18.
  87. ↑Valerius Maximus ii. 9. § 7; Livy. xxiv. 18, xxvii. 11.
  88. ↑Gellius, xv.11.
  89. ↑History of Rome, vol. ii p399, &c.
  90. ↑causam agere apud censores, Varro de re Rustica i.7.
  91. ↑Liv. xxiv.18.
  92. ↑Livy xxxviii.28, xxvii.11, xxxiv.44; Festus, s.v. Praeteriti.
  93. ↑Livy xxiv.18.
  94. ↑Cicero pro Cluentio Oratio 42, Plutarch Life of Cicero 17.
  95. ↑Livy xxiv.18, 43, xxvii.11, xxix.37, xliii.16.
  96. ↑Liv. xlv.15, Plin. H.N. xviii.3.
  97. ↑Livy xxiv.18; Cicero pro Cluentio Oratio 43.
  98. ↑Livy xliii.43.
  99. ↑Livy iv.24, xxiv.18, &c.
  100. ↑cf. Livy xxxix.44.
  101. ↑MacrobiusSaturnalia i.12.
  102. ↑Cicero de Lege Agraria i.3, ii.21.
  103. ↑Cicero ad Qu. Fr. i.1 §12, In Verrem iii.7, De Natura Deorum iii.19, Varro de re rustica ii.1.
  104. ↑Livy xxix.37, xl.51.
  105. ↑Livy xxxii.7.
  106. ↑Polybius vi.13; Livy xl.46, xliv.16.
  107. ↑aedes sacras tueri and sarta tecta exigere, Livy xxiv.18, xxix.37, xlii.3, xlv.15.
  108. ↑loca tueri, Livy xlii.3, xliii.16.
  109. ↑Livy xxxix.44, xliii.16.
  110. ↑Plutarch Roman Questions 98; Pliny Natural History x.22; Cicero pro Sexto Roscio Amerino Oratio 20.
  111. ↑Polybius 6.13.3
  112. ↑Liv. xl.51, xliv.16.
  113. ↑Cicero In Verrem i.57; Livy iv.22, xlv.15; Lex Puteol. p73, Spang.
  114. ↑lustrum facere or condere, Varro De lingua Latina vi.86; Livy xxix.37, xxxv.9, xxxviii.36, xlii.10.

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